A versioned transaction is Solana’s newer transaction format, labeled v0, that can point to on-chain accounts by a short index instead of writing out each full 32-byte address. Address lookup tables (ALTs) are the on-chain accounts that hold those addresses,…
A Jito bundle is a group of up to five Solana transactions that execute together, in a fixed order, as all-or-nothing. If any transaction in the bundle fails, none of them land. That guarantee is what makes bundles useful for…
Short answer: all three let you launch your own Ethereum-secured chain from open-source code, and the right pick depends on three things — how your chain proves its state, which ecosystem you want to plug into, and how much you…
Every Ethereum transaction that touches a smart contract carries a block of hexadecimal data. That block is the calldata, and it tells the contract which function to run and what arguments to pass. On its own it looks like a…
Chainlink CCIP, LayerZero, and Wormhole all do the same basic job: they carry tokens and data from one blockchain to another. The real difference is who checks that a message is genuine before it executes on the other side, and…
A reentrancy attack is when a contract makes an external call to another address, and that address calls back into the original function before the first call has finished updating its state. The attacker re-enters the same logic repeatedly, draining…
A token approval is a permission you give a smart contract to spend a set amount of your tokens. You grant it once, and it stays active until you cancel it. That standing permission is what makes approvals both useful…
A replay attack takes a transaction that was already signed and valid in one place, and rebroadcasts it somewhere it was never meant to run. The signature is real, so the receiving network accepts it — even though the owner…
Geth (short for go-ethereum) is the Go-language software that turns an ordinary computer into a full Ethereum node. It processes transactions, runs smart contract code, and keeps a verified copy of Ethereum’s current state. It’s the oldest Ethereum client and…
A Solana WebSocket subscription is a way to receive real-time notifications from the blockchain over a single open connection, instead of repeatedly asking an endpoint whether something changed. You open a WebSocket, send a subscription request such as accountSubscribe, and…